Ancient India

Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 BCE – 1300 BCE) — also called Harappan civilization. Bronze-age urban civilization in the north-western regions of South Asia.

Major sites:

• Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan) — discovered 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni.
• Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan) — discovered 1922 by R. D. Banerji. Means "mound of the dead". Famous for the Great Bath.
• Dholavira (Gujarat, India) — has unique water management.
• Lothal (Gujarat) — dockyard, suggesting maritime trade.
• Kalibangan (Rajasthan) — ploughed field; ritual fire altars.
• Banawali (Haryana), Rakhigarhi (Haryana — largest known IVC site).

Features: planned cities with grid pattern, drainage, granaries, baths, standardized weights/measures, undeciphered script, terracotta figurines, seals depicting bull, unicorn, peepal tree.

Vedic Age (c. 1500 BCE – 500 BCE):

• Early Vedic (Rig Vedic) period: 1500–1000 BCE. Society of pastoral Aryans. Rig Veda composed.
• Later Vedic period: 1000–500 BCE. Settled agriculture; emergence of varna (caste).

Four Vedas: Rig (hymns), Sama (chants/music), Yajur (rituals), Atharva (charms, medicine).

Major schools of philosophy that emerged later: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta.

Buddhism (6th century BCE):

• Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), born ~563 BCE at Lumbini (now Nepal). Attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. First sermon at Sarnath (Dharma Chakra Pravartana). Died at Kushinagar.
• Four Noble Truths: life is suffering, suffering has cause, suffering can end, the eightfold path leads to end of suffering.

Jainism (6th century BCE):

• 24 Tirthankaras; the 23rd was Parshvanatha and the 24th was Vardhamana Mahavira (599–527 BCE).
• Three jewels: right faith, right knowledge, right conduct.
• Strict ahimsa (non-violence).

Mahajanapadas (~600 BCE): 16 powerful kingdoms — Magadha, Kosala, Avanti, Vatsa, Anga, Vajji, etc.

Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE):

• Founder: Chandragupta Maurya (with mentor Chanakya / Kautilya, author of Arthashastra).
• Greatest emperor: Ashoka the Great (268–232 BCE). After Kalinga war (261 BCE), converted to Buddhism. Issued Ashokan edicts on pillars and rocks across the empire. Lion Capital of Sarnath is now India's national emblem.

Gupta Empire (320–550 CE) — "Golden Age" of India.

• Founder: Sri Gupta. Greatest rulers: Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).
• Achievements: Aryabhata (mathematics/astronomy — invented zero, calculated π), Kalidasa (Sanskrit poetry), Sushruta (surgery), Charaka (medicine). Nalanda University founded.
• Kumaragupta founded Nalanda (~5th century CE).

Timeline of major events:

• ~3300 BCE: Indus Valley begins.
• ~1900 BCE: Indus civilization declines.
• ~1500 BCE: Aryans arrive; Vedic age begins.
• ~563 BCE: Birth of Buddha.
• ~327–325 BCE: Alexander's invasion of north-west India.
• 322 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya founds Mauryan empire.
• 261 BCE: Kalinga war; Ashoka converts to Buddhism.
• 185 BCE: Mauryan empire ends.
• 320 CE: Gupta dynasty founded.
• 380–415 CE: Reign of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).
• 550 CE: Gupta empire declines.

Major ancient kingdoms after the Mauryas:

• Shungas (185–73 BCE): followed Mauryas; Pushyamitra Shunga.
• Kushans (1st–3rd century CE): Kanishka the Great (78 CE accession; start of Saka era).
• Satavahanas (1st BCE – 3rd CE): Andhra/Deccan dynasty.
• Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas: ancient Tamil kingdoms (Sangam age).

Religion and philosophy:

• Charvaka: ancient materialist school; rejected afterlife.
• Ajivika: founded by Makkhali Gosala; deterministic.
• Bhakti (devotional) movements gained popularity in medieval times.

Famous travellers to ancient India:

• Megasthenes (Greek ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya): wrote Indica.
• Fa-Hien (Chinese, 405–411 CE): visited during Chandragupta II's reign.
• Hiuen Tsang / Xuanzang (Chinese, 630–645 CE): visited during Harshavardhana's reign; spent time at Nalanda.
• I-Tsing / Yi Jing (7th century CE).

Harshavardhana (606–647 CE): last great Hindu emperor of north India; defeated by Pulakeshin II (Chalukya) at Narmada.

South Indian dynasties:

• Pallavas (4th–9th century CE): Mahabalipuram temples.
• Chalukyas (6th–12th century CE): Badami caves, Pattadakal.
• Pandyas / Cheras / Cholas: ancient Tamil dynasties.

Mathematics/Science achievements:

• Aryabhata (476 CE): zero; place-value; calculated π ≈ 3.1416; explained eclipses by Earth's shadow on the moon, not Rahu.
• Brahmagupta (628 CE): arithmetic with zero and negative numbers.
• Bhaskara II (1114 CE): differential calculus before Newton/Leibniz; wrote Lilavati.
• Sushruta: surgery (rhinoplasty, cataract).
• Charaka: Ayurveda (medicine).

Architecture: Stupas (Sanchi), rock-cut temples (Ajanta, Ellora), Iron Pillar of Delhi (4th century CE, rust-free for 1600 years).