Medieval India

Medieval India (c. 800 – 1700 CE) saw the rise of Islamic rule alongside Hindu kingdoms.

Pre-Sultanate:

• Rajputs (8th–12th century): clans like Chauhans, Pratiharas, Solankis, Paramaras. Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori at First Battle of Tarain (1191) but lost the Second (1192).
• Cholas (9th–13th century CE): South Indian empire under Rajaraja Chola (985–1014) and Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044). Naval power, temples at Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) — five dynasties:

1. Slave / Mamluk Dynasty (1206–1290):

   • Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210): founder; built Qutb Minar (completed by Iltutmish).
   • Iltutmish (1211–1236): consolidated empire; introduced silver tanka and copper jital.
   • Razia Sultana (1236–1240): first and only female Sultan of Delhi.
   • Balban (1266–1287): centralized power.

2. Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320):

   • Jalal-ud-din Khilji (1290–1296): founder.
   • Alauddin Khilji (1296–1316): conquered Gujarat, Rajputana, Deccan; market price control system; first attack of the Mongols.

3. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414):

   • Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320–1325): founder.
   • Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351): shifted capital from Delhi to Daulatabad and back; introduced token currency (failed). Known as "wise fool".
   • Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388): infrastructure builder; built canals.

4. Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451).

5. Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526):

   • Bahlul Lodi (1451–1489): founder; first Afghan dynasty.
   • Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517): shifted capital to Agra.
   • Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526): defeated by Babur at First Battle of Panipat (1526).

Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646) — South Indian Hindu empire. Founded by Harihara and Bukka. Greatest ruler Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529).

Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1526) — Deccan; split into five sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar).

Bhakti movement: religious reform; Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas, Mirabai, Tukaram, Ramananda. Stress on personal devotion.

Sikhism: founded by Guru Nanak Dev (1469–1539). Ten Gurus total; last was Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708), who founded the Khalsa (1699).

Mughal Empire (1526–1857):

1. Babur (1526–1530):

   • Battle of Panipat I (1526): defeated Ibrahim Lodi.
   • Battle of Khanwa (1527): defeated Rana Sanga.
   • Wrote Baburnama in Turkish.

2. Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–1556):

   • Defeated by Sher Shah Suri at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540). Fled to Persia. Regained throne 1555. Died falling from his library.

3. Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545): Afghan ruler; reformed administration, currency (rupee), road network (Grand Trunk Road). Built Sasaram tomb.

4. Akbar the Great (1556–1605):

   • Battle of Panipat II (1556): defeated Hemu.
   • Conquests: Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, Kandahar.
   • Religious tolerance: abolished jizya tax; Din-i-Ilahi (1582 — eclectic religion).
   • Nine Jewels (Navratnas): Birbal, Abul Fazl, Faizi, Todarmal, Man Singh, Tansen, Mulla Do-Piyaza, Hakim Humam, Abdur Rahim.
   • Built Fatehpur Sikri; Buland Darwaza.

5. Jahangir (1605–1627): married Nur Jahan (de facto ruler later years). British East India Company (Sir Thomas Roe) received first trading rights.

6. Shah Jahan (1628–1658): golden age of Mughal architecture.

   • Taj Mahal (1632–1653) at Agra — mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal.
   • Red Fort, Delhi (1648); shifted capital from Agra to Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi).
   • Jama Masjid, Delhi.
   • Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus).

7. Aurangzeb (1658–1707):

   • Imprisoned father Shah Jahan; killed brother Dara Shikoh.
   • Empire reached largest extent geographically.
   • Reimposed jizya; orthodox Sunni policies caused rebellions: Marathas (under Shivaji), Sikhs, Jats, Rajputs.

8. Later Mughals (1707–1857): decline. Bahadur Shah Zafar was the last emperor; exiled to Burma after 1857 revolt.

Marathas (1674–1818):

• Shivaji (1630–1680): founded Maratha kingdom 1674. Guerrilla warfare. Killed Afzal Khan; escaped Aurangzeb's captivity.
• Peshwas (1713–1818): hereditary prime ministers; expanded Maratha power across India.
• Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Marathas defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali.

European powers arriving:

• Portuguese (1498, Vasco da Gama at Calicut).
• Dutch (1602).
• British East India Company (1600 — Royal Charter; Surat 1612).
• French (1664).
• Danes.

Important medieval battles:

• Tarain II (1192): Muhammad Ghori defeats Prithviraj Chauhan.
• Talikota (1565): Deccan sultans defeat Vijayanagara.
• Plassey (1757): Robert Clive defeats Siraj-ud-Daulah of Bengal — beginning of British rule in India.