Ancient India

The Harappan (Indus Valley) Civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE, mature phase) was a Bronze Age urban culture. Memory aid 'HM-DLK-RB': Harappa (River Ravi, Daya Ram Sahni, 1921), Mohenjodaro (Indus, R.D. Banerji, 1922), Dholavira (Gujarat, on Khadir island — unique water reservoirs, signboard), Lothal (Bhogava — dockyard, bead-making), Kalibangan (Ghaggar, Rajasthan — ploughed field, fire altars), Rakhigarhi (Haryana — largest Harappan site, Drishadvati). Surkotada uniquely yielded horse bones. Chanhudaro is the only site WITHOUT a citadel. The civilization extended from Sutkagendor (west, Pakistan-Iran border) to Alamgirpur (east, UP), Manda (north, J&K) to Daimabad (south, Maharashtra). Shortcut: most sites lie along the now-dry Ghaggar-Hakra (Saraswati) system, not just the Indus.

Hallmark: grid pattern with streets cutting at right angles, a Citadel (raised, west) for rulers and a Lower Town (east) for commoners. Burnt bricks in ratio 4:2:1 and the Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) reflect advanced engineering. The Granary was the largest structure at Harappa/Mohenjodaro. Economy: agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton — first to grow cotton, 'Sindon' to Greeks), trade with Mesopotamia (called 'Meluhha'), standardized weights in multiples of 16. No definitive temple or evidence of war/army has been found. The script is pictographic and undeciphered, written boustrophedon (right-to-left first line, then reverse). Society appears largely egalitarian; the script and seals (esp. Pashupati seal, unicorn seal) are key cultural markers.

No single cause is confirmed. Theories include: Aryan invasion (Wheeler — now largely discredited), climate change/aridity and drying of the Saraswati-Ghaggar river, recurrent floods (Mohenjodaro shows flood layers), tectonic shifts altering river courses, deforestation, and decline in Mesopotamian trade. Example to remember: at Mohenjodaro, layers of silt and scattered skeletons were once read as 'massacre' evidence but are now attributed to floods/disease. Continuity rather than total collapse is the modern view — the urban phase ended (~1900 BCE) but rural Late Harappan cultures persisted. For UPSC, prefer 'multi-causal/environmental' explanations over a single invasion.

Early (Rig Vedic) Period: c. 1500–1000 BCE, centred on the 'Sapta Sindhu' (land of seven rivers, Punjab-Afghanistan). Pastoral, cattle-centric economy ('gavishti' = search for cattle = war); semi-nomadic, no caste rigidity, tribal polity (Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha, Gana). Later Vedic Period: c. 1000–600 BCE, eastward shift to the Ganga-Yamuna doab (Kuru-Panchala). Agriculture dominant, iron ('krishna ayas') appears, varna system rigidifies, kingdoms (Rashtra) emerge, elaborate rituals/yajnas. Memory aid: 'West-to-East, Cattle-to-Crop, Tribe-to-Kingdom'. The Aryan settlements moved progressively eastward over these centuries.

Four Vedas (Samhitas): RIG (oldest, 1028 hymns, 10 mandalas — Mandala III has the Gayatri Mantra to Savitri/Sun by Vishwamitra), SAMA (melodies/music — origin of Indian music), YAJUR (sacrificial formulae/prose), ATHARVA (charms, spells, magic — latest, folk traditions). Mnemonic 'R-S-Y-A: Recite, Sing, Yajna, Atharva-magic'. Each Veda has Brahmanas (ritual prose), Aranyakas (forest texts/philosophy), and Upanishads (Vedanta — philosophy, 108 in number, Mundaka Upanishad gives 'Satyameva Jayate'). The Vedangas (6 limbs: Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chhanda, Jyotisha) aid Veda study. 'Aa No Bhadra' and other hymns reflect Rig Vedic worldview.

Rig Vedic gods were nature-based: INDRA (most hymns, war/rain, 'Purandara'=fort-destroyer), AGNI (2nd most, fire, intermediary), VARUNA (cosmic order/Rita), Soma (plant/drink). Later Vedic prominence shifted to Prajapati (creator), Rudra, Vishnu. The Purusha Sukta (Rig Veda 10th Mandala) first mentions the four varnas. Polity: King (Rajan) aided by Purohita, Senani, Gramani; the Sabha and Samiti were key assemblies (women attended Sabha in early period). Later Vedic kings performed Rajasuya (coronation), Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), Vajapeya (chariot race) to assert power. Position of women declined in the Later Vedic age.

Jainism has 24 Tirthankaras. The FIRST was Rishabhadeva (Adinath, symbol: bull), the 23rd was Parshvanatha (symbol: snake; preached 4 vows), and the 24th and last was Vardhamana Mahavira (599–527 BCE; born Kundagrama near Vaishali; symbol: lion). Mahavira added a 5th vow (Brahmacharya). The Five Vows (Pancha Mahavrata): Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya (non-stealing), Aparigraha (non-possession), Brahmacharya (added by Mahavira). Three Jewels (Triratna): Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct. Philosophy: Anekantavada (many-sidedness) and Syadvada. Post-Mahavira, Jainism split into Svetambara (white-clad) and Digambara (sky-clad/naked) — split linked to a famine; Chandragupta Maurya is associated with Bhadrabahu's southern migration.

Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha, 563–483 BCE) was born at LUMBINI (Nepal) into the Shakya clan; attained ENLIGHTENMENT at BODH GAYA (under the Bodhi tree, river Niranjana); delivered his first sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana) at SARNATH (Deer Park near Varanasi); attained MAHAPARINIRVANA at KUSHINAGAR. Mnemonic 'L-B-S-K' (Lumbini-BodhGaya-Sarnath-Kushinagar). Core teachings: Four Noble Truths (suffering exists, has a cause/desire, can cease, and the path to cessation) and the Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga — the Middle Path). Concepts: anatta (no-soul), anicca (impermanence), Nirvana. Triratna: Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha. He taught in Pali.

FIRST Council: 483 BCE at Rajgriha (Rajagaha), under King Ajatashatru, presided by Mahakassapa — compiled Sutta Pitaka (Ananda) and Vinaya Pitaka (Upali). SECOND: 383 BCE at Vaishali, under Kalashoka — first schism into Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas. THIRD: c. 250 BCE at Pataliputra, under Ashoka, presided by Moggaliputta Tissa — compiled the Abhidhamma Pitaka; missionaries (incl. Mahindra/Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka) dispatched. FOURTH: c. 1st century CE (72 CE) at Kundalvana, Kashmir, under Kanishka, presided by Vasumitra (deputy Ashvaghosha) — Buddhism split into Hinayana and Mahayana; texts compiled in Sanskrit. Mnemonic for kings 'A-K-A-K' (Ajatashatru-Kalashoka-Ashoka-Kanishka).

Chandragupta Maurya (r. c. 322–298 BCE) founded the empire by overthrowing the Nandas with help from Chanakya (Kautilya/Vishnugupta). He defeated Seleucus Nicator (~305 BCE), gaining territory and a marriage alliance; Megasthenes (Greek envoy) wrote 'Indica' at his court. He embraced Jainism and is said to have died at Shravanabelagola via Sallekhana. Bindusara (r. 298–273 BCE, 'Amitraghata') maintained ties with the Greeks; Deimachus was the envoy. Ashoka (r. 268–232 BCE) — the Kalinga War (261 BCE) transformed him to Buddhism. Mnemonic 'C-B-A' (Chandragupta-Bindusara-Ashoka). The empire's capital was Pataliputra. Kautilya's Arthashastra details statecraft, economy, and administration.

Ashoka's inscriptions were deciphered by James Prinsep (1837). Most are in Brahmi script and Prakrit language; northwestern ones use Kharosthi (Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra), and a few use Greek/Aramaic (Kandahar). The Kalinga War is described in the 13th Major Rock Edict (but it is OMITTED from the Kalinga edicts there). Edicts mention Ashoka by titles 'Devanampiya' (Beloved of the Gods) and 'Piyadasi'; only Maski, Gujarra, and Nettur/Udegolam edicts give his personal name 'Ashoka'. Dhamma = a moral code: tolerance, non-violence, respect for elders, welfare. Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed to propagate it. The Lion Capital at Sarnath is India's national emblem.

Highly centralized bureaucracy. Provinces (4 major: Taxila/north, Ujjain/west, Suvarnagiri/south, Tosali/east; capital Pataliputra centrally administered) headed by Kumaras (princes). Megasthenes' Indica describes a city committee of 6 boards of 5 members each (30 officials) for Pataliputra, and divides society into 7 classes. Key officials: Mahamatras, Amatyas, Yuktas, Rajukas (revenue/justice), Pradeshikas. Espionage system was extensive (spies = 'gudhapurushas'). Revenue mainly from land ('Bhaga', ~1/6). Economy: state controlled mines, agriculture, trade. The Sohgaura and Mahasthan inscriptions deal with famine relief. The empire declined after Ashoka; the last ruler Brihadratha was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga (185 BCE).